Bioenergetics: Energy in Living Organisms.

BIOENERGETICS: ENERGY IN LIVING ORGANISMS.

Bioenergetics is the study of how living organisms acquire, store, and utilize energy. It plays a fundamental role in understanding the processes that sustain life.  

 

Course outline/content:

1. Bioenergetics: Definition
2. Energy Currency: ATP
3. Cellular Respiration
4. Photosynthesis
5. Metabolism
6. Thermodynamics
7. Energy Balance
8. Homeostasis
9. Major Terminologies in Bioenergetics

10.Conclusion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ENERGY CURRENCY:

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is often referred to as the “energy currency” of cells. It stores and transfers energy within cells for various biological processes.

 

In bioenergetics, the term “energy currency” refers to a molecule that plays a central role in storing and transferring energy within cells. The primary energy currency molecule in biological systems is adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is often called the “universal energy currency” because it is used by all living organisms, from bacteria to humans, to carry out essential cellular processes. ATP as the energy currency in bioenergetics can be discussed under the following headings:

 

Structure of ATP:

ATP is a molecule composed of three main components:

1. Adenine: A nitrogenous base, which is a part of the larger group of compounds called purines.
2. Ribose: A five-carbon sugar, which is a component of RNA (ribonucleic acid).
3. Triphosphate (three phosphate groups): These are high-energy phosphate bonds that store chemical potential energy.

 

The key to ATP’s role as an energy carrier is the high-energy phosphate bonds. The bonds between the phosphate groups are relatively unstable and can be easily broken to release energy when needed.

 

Function as an Energy Carrier:

ATP functions as a short-term energy storage molecule and a carrier of energy between energy-requiring cellular processes and energy-producing reactions. Here’s how it works:

 

1. Energy Storage: Energy from various sources, such as the breakdown of nutrients like glucose during cellular respiration, is captured and stored in ATP molecules. Specifically, the energy is stored in the high-energy phosphate bonds between the phosphate groups.

 

2. Energy Transfer: When a cell requires energy to carry out a specific task, such as muscle contraction, active transport, or chemical synthesis, ATP molecules are hydrolyzed (broken down) through a process called ATP hydrolysis. This hydrolysis results in the release of one phosphate group, forming adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This process releases energy that can be used for cellular work.

 

3.Recycling: The ADP and Pi produced during ATP hydrolysis can be reconverted back into ATP through processes like oxidative phosphorylation (in cellular respiration) or photophosphorylation (in photosynthesis). These processes use energy derived from electron transport chains to regenerate ATP from ADP and Pi.

 

Importance of ATP:

ATP is crucial for various cellular activities and processes, including:

– Muscle contraction: ATP provides the energy needed for muscle fibers to contract.

– Active transport: ATP powers the movement of ions and molecules across cell membranes against their concentration gradients.

– Chemical synthesis: ATP is used to drive the synthesis of various molecules, including proteins, DNA, and RNA.

– Nerve cell signaling: ATP plays a role in transmitting signals between nerve cells.

– Maintenance of cellular homeostasis: ATP is essential for maintaining ion gradients, pH levels, and other cellular processes that support life.

 

In summary, ATP serves as the energy currency in bioenergetics by storing and transferring energy within cells. Its ability to release energy quickly through hydrolysis reactions makes it a vital molecule for powering cellular processes and maintaining the energetic needs of living organisms.

 

CELLULAR RESPIRATION:

 

 Cellular respiration is a key process in bioenergetics that allows cells to harvest energy from organic molecules, such as glucose, and convert it into a form that can be used for various cellular activities, primarily in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This process occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. Let’s delve into each of these stages:

 

1. Glycolysis:

– Location: Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.

– Input: One molecule of glucose (a six-carbon sugar).

– Output: Two molecules of pyruvate (a three-carbon compound), two molecules of NADH, and a net gain of two molecules of ATP.

– Key Events: Glycolysis is a series of ten enzymatic reactions. It begins with the phosphorylation of glucose and ends with the formation of pyruvate. Along the way, energy is extracted, and NADH is generated. ATP is both consumed and produced during glycolysis, resulting in a net gain of ATP( 2 molecules).

 

2. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):

– Location: The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondria of the cell.

– Input: Each pyruvate produced during glycolysis is further processed in the citric acid cycle.

– Output: For each pyruvate, the cycle generates three molecules of NADH, one molecule of FADH2, one molecule of ATP (through substrate-level phosphorylation), and two molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2). The cycle completes twice for every glucose molecule.

 

3. Oxidative Phosphorylation:

– Location: This stage primarily occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane, where the electron transport chain is located.

– Input: NADH and FADH2 molecules produced in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.

– Output: The primary output of oxidative phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP through a process called chemiosmotic phosphorylation. Oxygen (O2) is the final electron acceptor, and it is reduced to water (H2O) during this process.

– Key Events: NADH and FADH2 transfer their electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC). As electrons move through the ETC, protons (H+) are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient. This gradient is used to drive ATP synthesis through ATP synthase in a process known as chemiosmosis.

 

Overall Energy Yield:

The complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose through cellular respiration yields a total of approximately 36-38 molecules of ATP. This includes the ATP generated in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

 

Importance of Cellular Respiration:

Cellular respiration is essential for several reasons:

– It provides the cell with a steady supply of ATP, which is the primary energy source for cellular work.

– It efficiently extracts energy from organic molecules, making it available for use in various cellular processes.

– It allows cells to regulate their metabolic pathways and maintain energy homeostasis.

– It provides carbon dioxide (a waste product) for elimination from the body.

 

In a nutshell, cellular respiration is a central process in bioenergetics that enables cells to extract and utilize energy from glucose and other organic molecules. It is a highly regulated and efficient process that ensures the cell’s energy needs are met and contributes to the overall functioning and survival of organisms.

 

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

Photosynthesis is a fundamental process in bioenergetics that allows plants, algae, and some bacteria to convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy stored in the form of glucose and other organic molecules. This process is vital for sustaining life on Earth as it provides the energy and organic compounds needed for the growth and maintenance of these organisms. We can discuss photosynthesis under the following headings:

 

 

1. Location:

Photosynthesis primarily takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts contain pigments called chlorophylls, which are responsible for capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy.

 

2. Overview of Photosynthesis:

 

The chemical equation for photosynthesis is 6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2.6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2.

The formation of a simple carbohydrate, glucose, is indicated by a chemical equation,

Little free glucose is produced in plants; instead, glucose units are linked to form starch or are joined with fructose, another sugar, to form sucrose

 

Photosynthesis can be divided into two main stages:

 

1. Light Stage (Light-dependent reactions):

– These reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.

– They require light as the primary energy source.

– Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments, leading to the generation of high-energy molecules like ATP and NADPH.

– Water molecules are split (photolysis), releasing oxygen gas (O2) as a byproduct.

 

1. Dark Stage or Calvin Cycle (Light-independent reactions):

– The Calvin Cycle takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts.

– It uses the ATP and NADPH generated in the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into glucose and other sugars.

– The Calvin Cycle consists of a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that involve carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of the starting molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP).

 

3. Role of Pigments:

Chlorophylls and other pigments in chloroplasts are responsible for absorbing light energy. Different pigments absorb light of specific wavelengths, mainly in the blue and red regions of the visible spectrum. Chlorophylls reflect green light, which is why plants appear green.

 

4. Oxygen Production:

During the light-dependent reactions, as water molecules are split, oxygen gas (O2) is released as a byproduct. This process is essential for replenishing atmospheric oxygen and supporting respiration in aerobic organisms.

 

5. Energy Storage:

The primary product of photosynthesis is glucose, although other organic molecules are also formed. These organic compounds store the captured energy in the form of chemical bonds. Glucose can be used as an immediate energy source for the plant or stored for later use.

 

6. Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:

Several environmental factors can influence the rate of photosynthesis, including:

– Light intensity: Higher light levels generally increase the rate of photosynthesis until a saturation point is reached.

– Temperature: Photosynthesis rates are typically optimal within a specific temperature range.

– Carbon dioxide concentration: Increased CO2 levels can enhance photosynthesis.

– Water availability: Adequate water is essential for photosynthesis to occur.

 

7. Importance of Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is critical for various reasons:

– It is the primary source of energy for plants and supports their growth and development.

– It forms the foundation of the food chain, as herbivores and other organisms rely on plants for their energy and nutrition.

– It regulates atmospheric oxygen levels by releasing O2 as a byproduct.

– It helps mitigate the effects of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by fixing CO2 into organic molecules.

 

In summary, photosynthesis is a central process in bioenergetics that enables autotrophic organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy. This stored energy serves as the foundation of the ecosystem and sustains life on Earth by providing food, oxygen, and the raw materials necessary for growth and metabolism.

 

 

METABOLISM:

Metabolism is a fundamental concept in bioenergetics and biology as a whole. It refers to the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism to maintain life. These reactions can be divided into two main categories: anabolism and catabolism.

 

1. Anabolism:

Anabolism refers to the set of metabolic pathways that involve the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones. These reactions typically require an input of energy. Some key points about anabolism include:

 

– Energy Input: Anabolic reactions consume energy to build molecules. This energy is often provided by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the “energy currency” of cells.

 

– Examples: Anabolic processes include protein synthesis, DNA replication, and the formation of complex carbohydrates and lipids.

 

– Role in Growth: Anabolism is crucial for the growth and maintenance of an organism. It allows cells to repair damaged structures and create new ones.

 

2. Catabolism:

Catabolism, on the other hand, refers to the metabolic pathways that involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process. Key points about catabolism include:

 

– Energy Release: Catabolic reactions release energy that can be used to do work within the cell, such as powering muscle contractions or active transport processes.

 

-Examples: Catabolic processes include glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose), the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), and the oxidative phosphorylation pathway.

 

– Role in Energy Production: Catabolism plays a central role in energy production, providing the cell with ATP and other high-energy molecules.

 

Key Metabolic Pathways:

Several metabolic pathways are crucial for extracting and storing energy in biological systems, these includes:

 

– Glycolysis: Glycolysis is a universal metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. It involves the breakdown of one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, along with the production of a small amount of ATP and NADH.

 

– Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondria and serves as a central hub for the catabolic breakdown of various molecules, including pyruvate, fatty acids, and amino acids. It generates high-energy molecules like ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

 

– Oxidative Phosphorylation: This process occurs in the mitochondria and involves the transfer of electrons through the electron transport chain (ETC) and the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmotic phosphorylation. It is a primary source of ATP production.

 

– Beta Oxidation: This catabolic pathway occurs in the mitochondria and is responsible for breaking down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA, which can then enter the citric acid cycle for further energy extraction.

 

– Protein Metabolism: Proteins are broken down into amino acids, and the carbon skeletons of amino acids can be used for energy production. Additionally, amino acids play essential roles in building and maintaining cellular structures.

 

Regulation of Metabolism:

Metabolism is tightly regulated to ensure that the energy needs of an organism are met while preventing the wasteful use of resources. Hormones and enzymes play a critical role in regulating metabolic pathways. For example, insulin regulates glucose uptake and storage, while glucagon promotes glucose release from storage.

 

In summary, metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions within an organism, including anabolic processes that build complex molecules and catabolic processes that break down molecules to release energy. This intricate network of reactions allows living organisms to extract, store, and utilize energy efficiently, ensuring their survival and growth.

 

THERMODYNAMICS:

Thermodynamics plays a crucial role in bioenergetics, as it provides the fundamental principles governing energy transformations in biological systems. Understanding thermodynamics is essential for comprehending how living organisms acquire, store, and utilize energy. There are two primary laws of thermodynamics that are particularly relevant to bioenergetics:

 

1. First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Energy Conservation):

The first law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system; it can only change forms. In the context of bioenergetics:

 

– Energy is neither created nor destroyed during metabolic processes within living organisms. Instead, it is transformed from one form to another.

– For example, when organisms metabolize nutrients like glucose during cellular respiration, the chemical potential energy stored in glucose is converted into forms such as kinetic energy (e.g., muscle contraction), thermal energy (heat), and chemical energy (ATP).

 

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Entropy):

The second law states that in any energy transformation or transfer, the total entropy (a measure of disorder or randomness) of an isolated system will increase over time. In the context of bioenergetics:

 

– Organisms continually take in energy from their surroundings (e.g., through food or sunlight) to maintain their internal organization and function.

– As energy is transformed within a cell to perform various tasks (e.g., synthesizing molecules, maintaining ion gradients, powering mechanical work), some energy is lost as heat, and entropy increases.

– Metabolic processes tend to move from ordered to disordered states, reflecting the increase in entropy.

 

In summary, thermodynamics provides the theoretical framework for understanding energy flow and transformation in biological systems. These principles are foundational in bioenergetics and help explain why living organisms require a constant input of energy (usually in the form of food or sunlight) to maintain their ordered and functional states, while also producing waste heat and contributing to the overall increase in entropy in the universe.

 

ENERGY BALANCE:

Energy balance is a fundamental concept in bioenergetics and physiology that refers to the equilibrium between the energy intake and energy expenditure of an organism. It is crucial for the overall health, growth, and survival of living organisms. Energy balance can be categorized into two states: positive energy balance and negative energy balance.

 

1. Positive Energy Balance:

Positive energy balance occurs when an organism’s energy intake exceeds its energy expenditure. In this state:

 

– Excess energy is typically stored in the form of body fat (adipose tissue) for future use.

– Positive energy balance is essential during periods of growth, such as childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy, as it supports the building of new tissues and organs.

– However, chronic positive energy balance, often caused by excessive calorie consumption and insufficient physical activity, can lead to weight gain and obesity.

 

2. Negative Energy Balance:

Negative energy balance occurs when an organism’s energy expenditure exceeds its energy intake. In this state:

 

– The body must utilize stored energy reserves to meet its energy needs. This often involves breaking down stored fat for energy.

– Negative energy balance is commonly associated with weight loss and can occur during periods of reduced calorie intake or increased physical activity.

– When negative energy balance is too extreme or prolonged, it can lead to malnutrition and health issues.

 

Energy Balance Factors:

What are those factors that can impact energy balance in an organism? Several factors influence an organism’s energy balance, including:

 

-Caloric Intake: The number of calories consumed through food and beverages plays a critical role in energy balance. Consuming more calories than the body needs can lead to positive energy balance, while consuming fewer calories can result in negative energy balance.

 

– Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): BMR represents the energy expenditure required for essential physiological functions, such as maintaining body temperature, breathing, and cell maintenance. It accounts for a significant portion of an individual’s daily energy expenditure.

 

-Physical Activity: Physical activity, including exercise and daily movements, can significantly affect energy expenditure. Engaging in regular physical activity increases energy expenditure, helping to create a negative energy balance when necessary.

 

– Thermic Effect of Food (TEF): TEF refers to the energy expended during the digestion and metabolism of food. Different macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) require varying amounts of energy for digestion and absorption.

 

-Environmental Factors: Environmental factors, such as temperature and climate, can influence energy expenditure. In cold environments, the body expends more energy to maintain its core temperature, whereas in hot environments, the body expends very little or no energy!

 

– Hormones: Hormones like insulin, leptin, and ghrelin play roles in regulating appetite and metabolism, affecting energy balance. Hormonal imbalances can disrupt energy balance and contribute to obesity or malnutrition.

 

Maintaining Healthy Energy Balance:

Maintaining a healthy energy balance is crucial for overall health and well-being. It helps prevent conditions like obesity, which is associated with various health problems, including heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers. Achieving a healthy energy balance typically involves:

 

– Consuming a balanced diet with appropriate calorie intake to meet energy needs.

– Engaging in regular physical activity and exercise.

– Monitoring body weight and making adjustments as needed to maintain a healthy weight.

– Managing stress, sleep, and other lifestyle factors that can affect energy balance and metabolism.

 

In summary, energy balance is the equilibrium between energy intake and expenditure in an organism. Maintaining a healthy energy balance is essential for optimal health and involves managing diet, physical activity, and lifestyle factors to prevent both positive and negative energy imbalances.

 

 

HOMEOSTASIS:

Homeostasis is a fundamental concept in bioenergetics and biology as a whole. It refers to the body’s ability to maintain a stable and balanced internal environment despite external changes. In the context of bioenergetics, homeostasis is essential for regulating energy balance, temperature, and other physiological processes to ensure the proper functioning and survival of organisms.

 

Homeostasis in bioenergetics can be discussed under the following headings:

 

1. Energy Homeostasis:

Energy homeostasis refers to the balance between energy intake (caloric consumption) and energy expenditure (caloric expenditure) to maintain a stable body weight and energy reserves. The regulation of energy homeostasis is essential for an organism’s overall health. Homeostatic mechanisms help ensure that the body has enough energy for its metabolic processes without excessive energy storage or depletion.

 

2. Temperature Regulation:

Homeostasis plays a vital role in regulating body temperature, known as thermoregulation. The body maintains a relatively constant core temperature despite external temperature fluctuations. When the body temperature rises (e.g., during exercise or in a hot environment), mechanisms such as sweating and vasodilation help cool the body. Conversely, when the body temperature falls (e.g., in cold conditions), mechanisms like shivering and vasoconstriction conserve heat.

 

3. Metabolic Homeostasis:

Bioenergetic processes, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation, are promptly regulated to maintain metabolic homeostasis. Enzymes, hormones, and feedback mechanisms help ensure that metabolic pathways operate efficiently and adapt to changing energy demands and nutrient availability.

 

4. Hormonal Regulation:

Hormones play a significant role in maintaining homeostasis in bioenergetics. For example, insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels, ensuring that cells have a steady supply of glucose for energy. Leptin and ghrelin control appetite and energy intake, helping to regulate body weight.

 

5. Electrolyte and pH Balance:

Homeostasis extends to the regulation of electrolyte levels and pH balance in bodily fluids. Cells require specific pH levels and electrolyte concentrations to function optimally. Homeostatic mechanisms in the kidneys, lungs, and other organs help maintain these balances.

 

6. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Levels:

Homeostasis also involves regulating the levels of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the body. Respiratory and cardiovascular systems work together to ensure that cells receive adequate O2 and eliminate excess CO2.

 

7. Feedback Mechanisms:

Homeostatic control systems typically operate through feedback mechanisms. There are two primary types of feedback:

   – Negative Feedback: This mechanism works to counteract deviations from the set point, bringing the system back to equilibrium. For example, when blood glucose levels rise, insulin is released to lower them.

   -Positive Feedback: In contrast, positive feedback mechanisms amplify deviations from the set point. These mechanisms are less common in maintaining stable internal conditions.

 

In summary, homeostasis in bioenergetics involves the maintenance of stable and balanced internal conditions, including energy balance, temperature, metabolic processes, hormone regulation, and the control of various physiological parameters. These processes are essential for an organism’s survival, as they ensure that cells receive the energy and environmental conditions necessary for proper functioning. Homeostasis involves a complex interplay of regulatory mechanisms and feedback systems to maintain equilibrium in a dynamic and changing environment.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MAJOR TERMINOLOGIES IN BIOENERGETICS

 

The following are 55 major terminologies in bioenergetics that will foster a quick understanding of this course:

1. Bioenergetics: The study of energy transformations within living organisms and the efficiency of energy conversion.
2. Energy: The capacity to do work or bring about change. In bioenergetics, energy is the driving force behind all cellular processes.
3. Thermodynamics: The study of energy and its transformations.
4. Entropy: A measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.
5. Enthalpy: The total heat content of a system.
6. Gibbs free energy: The energy available to do work in a system.
7. ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, a molecule that stores and releases energy for cellular processes.
8. ADP: Adenosine diphosphate, a molecule that is produced when ATP releases energy.
9. Phosphorylation: The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often used to store energy.
10. Oxidation: The loss of electrons from a molecule.
11. Reduction: The gain of electrons by a molecule.
12. Redox reaction: A reaction that involves both oxidation and reduction.
13. Electron transport chain: A series of proteins and molecules that transfer electrons and generate a proton gradient across a membrane.
14. Proton gradient: A difference in proton concentration across a membrane, used to generate ATP.
15. Chemiosmosis: The process by which a proton gradient is used to generate ATP.
16. Mitochondria: Organelles that generate ATP through cellular respiration.
17. Chloroplasts: Organelles in plant cells that generate ATP through photosynthesis.
18. Photosynthesis: The process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
19. Cellular respiration: The process by which glucose is broken down to generate ATP.
20. Glycolysis: The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP.
21. Citric acid cycle: A series of reactions that generate ATP and carbon dioxide from pyruvate.
22. Electron carriers: Molecules that transfer electrons in redox reactions.
23. NADH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, an electron carrier that is reduced during cellular respiration.
24. FADH2: Flavin adenine dinucleotide, an electron carrier that is reduced during cellular respiration.
25. Anaerobic respiration: Cellular respiration that occurs in the absence of oxygen.
26. Fermentation: A type of anaerobic respiration that generates ATP without oxygen.
27. Lactic acid fermentation: A type of fermentation that generates lactic acid.
28. Alcoholic fermentation: A type of fermentation that generates ethanol.
29. Gluconeogenesis: The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
30. Lipolysis: The breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
31. Beta-oxidation: The breakdown of fatty acids to generate ATP.
32. Ketogenesis: The synthesis of ketone bodies from fatty acids.
33. Ketone bodies: Molecules produced during ketogenesis that can be used for energy.
34. Glycogenolysis: The breakdown of glycogen to generate glucose.
35. Glycogenesis: The synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
36. Glucagon: A hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
37. Insulin: A hormone that stimulates glycogenesis and lipogenesis.
38. Lipogenesis: The synthesis of fats from glucose or amino acids.
39. Amino acid catabolism: The breakdown of amino acids to generate ATP.
40. Deamination: The removal of an amino group from an amino acid.
41. Urea cycle: A series of reactions that convert ammonia to urea for excretion.
42. Basal metabolic rate: The amount of energy required to maintain basic bodily functions at rest.
43. Calorie: A unit of energy, often used to measure the energy content of food.
44. Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in an organism.
45. Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.
46. Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones.
47. Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in an organism.
48. Feedback inhibition: A mechanism by which the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.
49. Metabolic pathway: A series of reactions that convert one molecule to another.
50. Metabolic rate: The rate at which an organism uses energy.
51. Energy balance: The balance between energy intake and energy expenditure.
52. Energy Coupling: The process by which energy released from one reaction is used to drive another reaction.
53. Cytochrome C: A protein that carries electrons in the electron transport chain.
54. ATP Synthase: An enzyme that generates ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate
55. Phosphocreatine: A molecule that can be used to quickly regenerate ATP.

 

 

These are some of the key terminologies in bioenergetics that are essential for understanding the flow and transformation of energy within living organisms. Bioenergetics encompasses a wide range of processes and concepts related to energy in biology, making these terms fundamental for students and researchers in the field

 

CONCLUSION

Bioenergetics as a course is not only important in biochemistry, it’s also a core course in biology and physiology because it provides insights into how living systems extract and use energy to carry out essential functions. It also has practical applications in areas such as medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering.

 

Tags: Bioenergetics, Thermic Energy Effects, TEF, Course outline, energy, Latest Topics, Biochem z

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

[1] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2633811/

[2] https://study.com/academy/lesson/bioenergetics-definition-theory.html

[3] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2828274/

[4] https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/deamer_weber_2010.pdf

[5] https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2026786118

[6] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005272812010286

 

 

 

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